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AbstractEthiopian-Semitic constitutes a compact, readily defined and homogeneous linguistic family, consisting of Ge' ez, Tigre, Tigrinya, Amharic, Argobba, Harari, Gafat, and the Gurage cluster. The most recent attempt to set up a classification of Ethiopian-Semitic was Hetzron [1972}, but this work was rather thoroughly criticized by Goldenberg [1977], and the field has yet to recover from it. The present note seeks to open the classification question anew by providing a basic, minimalist classification scheme, which can serve as a starting-off point for any future work on the subject. We begin with some of the results of Marcel Cohen [1931], "the father of Ethiopian studies" in the twentieth century. Cohen treats Tigre and Tigrinya as Northern Ethiopic, and Amharic, Harari, and the Gurage cluster as Southern Ethiopic. All are ultimately descendants of a ProtoEthiopic koine most closely resembling Ge'ez. Gurage, according to Cohen, is not a language or a linguistic unit in itself, but rather an ensemble of at least two separate and mutually unintelligible dialect clusters, Eastern Gurage and Western Gurage. Eastern Gurage consists of Wolane, Selti-Ulbarag, (and in the present state of our knowledge also Zway) , and is most closely connected with Harari. Western Gurage consists of several subgroups of dialects, in particular (a) Chaha, Ezha, Ennemor (Inor), Gumar, Gyeto (and in the present state of our knowledge Endegefi) and (b) Muher, Gogot, Masqan. Aymallel (Soddo, Kgstangiiiia), another Gurage tongue, is left unclassified by Cohen, as being perhaps intermediate between the two groups. Tentatively, he terms it North-Eastern Gurage. (Gafat and Argobba are not classified by Cohen.)

A survey à vol d’oiseau Some 15 kms from Dire Dawa on the way to Dengego, Haräla is probably a XIII century town that sized nearly half sqkm. Walled, it was the capital of the Haräla3 kingdom located in between the Indian Ocean and the highlands of Ethiopia. It has developed for long time commercial links with Zeila, a sea town and a strategic door to the middle and far east. Through that, nilotic, high and low lands cultures of Ethiopia were easily intermingled with those from Arabia peninsula, other countries of Middle East, India and far East, as confirmed by chronicles of the time.

Preservation of Urban and Architectural Heritage of Harar, Ethiopia Hisham Mortada, Dept. of Architecture, King Abdul Aziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Abstract—The evolution of Harar, Ethiopia, goes back to the seventh century, when some Muslims from Mecca migrated to al-Habasha (Ethiopia) before Medina. These men spread Islam from Harar to various parts of the African Horn, thus Harar took a religious fame as the fourth holiest Muslim city. Since then, the city was developed by its Muslim population and became rich in its Islamic urban, architectural and cultural heritage. This has encouraged the UNESCO to declare this city as a World Heritage site. Regardless of the national and international efforts to preserve the Islamic heritage of Hara, the city is still suffering from physical decay. As a result a team from KAU took the responsibly of setting up a master plan aiming to preserve the urban and architectural heritage of Harar. As discussed in this research, the project consists of two phases. The first is an investigation of the potentials of preservation of urban and architectural heritage of Harar. This covers studies of historic, geographic, environmental, socio-cultural, urban and architectural aspects of the city. The second proposes a mechanism of dealing with the heritage of Harar through several stages such as a selection of an action area and surveying it in terms of land uses, building highest, buildings of special historic value, building physical conditions, and construction materials. The project is culminated in a detailed proposal for preservation and development of the action area in a sustainable sense. Prof. Hisham Mortada is also the author of a book titles Traditional Islamic principles of built environment. I find this book interesting in understanding how Islamic homes built and why, which reflects how Harari homes built as Islamic heritage city. I would encourage anyone to read the book. For anyone interested to comment on this book or research paper feel free to email it to hmortada@kau.edu.sa .

The objective of this paper is to show the importanceand the necessity of the integrated preservation of the tangibleand intangible values of the military heritage places for thecontemporary and for the future generations. The method of thework consists in the attempt of the tangible and intangiblevalues definition of the military heritage places and in theanalyses of the different ways of their preservation. The resultsof analysis show the unbalance in the treating of the tangibleand intangible values of the military heritage places. Theconclusion presents the comparison between the conservationpolices and the practices concerning the preservation of thespirit of the military heritage places and the proposal for thenecessity of the increasing the interest in the integratedpreservation of the tangible and intangible values of the militaryheritage places.Ethiopia - Harar Jugol, the Fortified Historic Town (2006)

In the town of Harar, a group of migrants from Fedis met in the main street gave a first impression on the nature of the problem. The people came to the town on foot because there was “no food at all” in their home areas of Fedis wereda, which is located south of the urban administrative region of Harari. If help was not forthcoming in Harar, the people indicated they would walk east on the main highway connecting Harar through Babile and Gursum to Jigjiga. Situation

Introduction Policy makers and extension planners often assume smallholder mixed farming systems are incapable of evolving fast enough to meet growing food demands and that livestock are relatively unimportant to household food production or welfare (FDRE, 1994), except for intensive units. The resulting policy promotes substitution of either intensive cropping or livestock production in place of the traditional mixed portfolio. Although widely promoted in the Harar Highlands, farmers resist these recommendations in favour of more diverse and integrated systems with crops, livestock, and non-agricultural activities. The contrast between what policy makers and development practitioners think and what farmers do signifies misunderstanding about interactions that govern farmers’ behaviors. The evolution and potential impacts of these agricultural systems on human welfare are also poorly understood, which precludes effective intervention to help achieve farmers’ objectives. Understanding the crop-livestock subsystem is an essential part of the bio-economic foundations of rural livelihood systems (Thornton and Herrero, 2001), which requires accounting its component stocks and interactions (Ashley and Carney, 1999). Towards a goal of identifying through simulation “high leverage” interventions that enhance system performance, our objective is to establish a conceptual model framework representing key elements of the livelihood system structure.

The city-state of Harar, a micro-cultural island in Eastern Ethiopia, was for centuries a holy city of Islam and an international commercial crossroad. Local musical traditions (gey fäqär), unique and diverse at once, concurrently express the specific character of Harari identity as well as its openness to cultural exchange. The most ancient style of Harari traditional secular sung poetry is called ğāliyei (“my beloved”) and is performed polyphonically by two expert singers, the “thrower” and the “catcher” of a verse. Through the last decennia, young generations became acquainted with western melodic instruments and developed new musical forms: Harari modern songs, once practiced by local youth associations (mugād), today reached a certain commercial distribution. Despite formal and sociological differences, Harari “pop” is strictly interlocked with traditional gey fäqär: verses often correspond; themes openly describe, represent and celebrate Harari cultural identity; musical system is heptatonic and represents an exception to the widespread African pentatonism. Within Harari society, old and new cultural habits interact, balancing conservation and innovation. The analysis of Harari intangible heritage, from the ancient ğāliyei to the new commercial “pop” songs, discloses the main historical developments of this multifaceted musical culture.

Since the basic premise of this discussion is that ethnicity and ethnicrelations are variables which respond through time in accordance to a more basicpoTitical-economic infrastructure, it would be misleading of me to approach mytopic here as a study of how the Harari urban minority survived in the face ofthe overwhelming numberica l superiority of the surrounding Oromo. Rather I amconcerned with the forces and influences which shaped this relationship and—-perhaps more importantly—which shaped the experiences of these two neighboringpopulations of the southeastern periphery of the Ethiopian Empire.My earlier analyses of Harari-Oromo interrelationships were reasonablyadequate presentations of a system of ethnic stratification which I abstractedĞrduring fieldwork done from 1962-64 (Waldron. 1974:260-299; 1980:249-256). Their•purpose was to discuss the means by which the Harari townsmen had adhered tothei'" ethnic identity white engaging in daily contacts with other ethnic groups.Beyond that, my basic problem could be described as that of reporting thesocial morphology of Harari social institutions and their intricate influencesin ordering the daily life of the people of the city of Hara'r. At the timeof fieldwork, the Harari dominated the landholding in the region immediatelysurrounding the city. Two versions( published and unpublished ) of the article exist. Unpublihed form is with link.

In Harar, on Tuesday, November 30, the Ambassador took part in a ceremony marking the completion of the renovations of the historic Teferi Mekonnen Palace and made a donation of equipment to the ongoing effort to preserve and archive the important Islamic manuscript collection housed in the Palace (now called the Harar City Museum). The Teferi Mekonnen Palace renovation was funded through a $35,000 grant from the Ambassador's Fund for Cultural Preservation to Harar's Bureau of Culture and Tourism. The equipment provided by the U.S. Embassy to help preserve, display and archive the Islamic Manuscript collection is valued at approximately $27,000.

The primarily objective of the UNDP-EUE mission was to familiarise with the particularities of the zone and contact and introduce myself to important governmental institutions, NGOs and other humanitarian and development organisations operating in Hararghe Zone of Oromyia Region. Besides picking up general overviews of activities performed by the various humanitarian and development organisations and institutions, special attention was paid to two specific issues of particular interest: chat and coffee, the two major cash crops grown in parts of the Hararghe highlands and exported to neighbouring countries, and the food security situation in drought affected lowland areas of East Hararghe. General overview Hararghe is situated in the eastern part of Ethiopia, bordering Somali Region as well as the urban administrative regions of Dire Dawa and Harari. In the sub-regional context of Djibouti, Northwest Somalia, and East Ethiopia, the highland area of Hararghe is the only place where climatic conditions allow rainfed agriculture. Hararghe comprises of three agroclimatic belts. Lowlands, the kolla, ~35% of the area, midlands, the weyna dega, ~40% and highlands, the dega, ~25%. There are two rainy seasons, the small belg and the main meher. Belg production is limited within the dega belt and part of the wetter weyna dega. Belg rains are widely used for land preparation for long-cycle meher crop production. The yearly rainfall variability and its frequently uneven distribution result in a wide range of climatic hazards farmers have to deal with. While at lower altitudes crop cultivation is usually rather limited leading to a more livestockbased economy, at higher altitudes the economy is characterised by both food and cash crops. Main staple food include sorghum and maize, as well as sweet potatoes cultivated during difficult years to improve food security. A good part of Hararghe Zone enjoys a privileged position for production and marketing of cash crops such as chat, a popular mild narcotic, with the trading potential still exceeding the actual production capacity. Besides chat, coffee, Irish potatoes and onions are produced for cash. These cash crops are mainly cultivated in the weyna dega and the lower dega and for chat exceptionally also in the kolla. The cash crop chat witnessed a tremendous boom over the last couple of years, followed by Irish potatoes, onion/shallots and some other vegetables. Coffee generally marked a downward trend except for some areas in West Hararghe. In the eastern lowlands of Babile, Gursum and to some extent the southern lowlands of Fedis groundnuts are cultivated as a cash crop. Hence, while most of the actual farming systems are still characterised by a strong subsistence component, the trend is towards more cash crop production which may soon Hararghe Mission: April 1999 2 bring the majority of Hararghe farmers to the cross-roads between subsistence and cash economy. The vast majority of the rural population is living from agriculture, with some pastoralists and agropastoralists in the lowlands. Increasing population density coupled with the lack of alternative employment opportunities leads to progressive land pressure and subsequent shrinking of individual landholdings or migration and utilisation of marginal lowland areas for agriculture. Climatic hazards are increasingly frequent, with pest infestations and crop diseases additionally hampering crop production. Coupled with high land pressure, the margin for farmers’ agroeconomic decisions is progressively narrowing. The shift to an increased and intensified chat production is one of the farmers’ response to face some of the constraints. But those areas, especially the lowland pastoralist and agropastoralist areas, where agricultural substitutes such as chat cannot make up for prevailing constraints, are increasingly suffering from food insecurity.

ETHIOPIA: ARCHAEOLOGISTS DISCOVER THREE MEDIEVAL TOWNSStaff Report PARIS, 7 APRIL 2007 - The ruins of three medieval towns were discovered last January in Ethiopia during the Gendebelo/Nora I exploratory mission coordinated by the French Center for Ethiopian Studies in Addis Ababa, directed by Francois-Xavier Fauvelle, a researcher at France's prestigious multi-disciplinary National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS). These towns are probably the first material vestiges of the Shoa (or Shewa) kingdom, an important Muslim kingdom known from texts to have dominated the region from the 10th to the 16th century. Until now its precise place on the map has never been clear. The kingdom controlled one of the most important trade routes of the time, between the Christianized Ethiopian highlands and the Muslim ports of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. Perched up at about 1300 meters, on the escarpment of the Rift Valley in an area now covered in thick brush and scrub, the remains of mosques, residential areas and city walls, and buildings with walls several meters high stud the sites of the medieval towns of Asbari, Masal and Nora. The population of the region is composed of mainly Muslim rural mixed farming communities, who dispute their rights to this area. The areas around these ancient sites show traces of terraced farming, but today they are pastures.

The Mennera Institute (Local NGO)- Harar Cultural and Heritage Center, Jugol Harar, Ethiopia This model-project provides a framework of actions aimed towards the revival of Jugol, a UNESCO world heritage site. It involves the restoration of several key buildings of a distinctly Ethiopian style of architecture, creating a knowledge center for the promotion of traditional culture, social cohesion and religious tolerance, the creation of a center for the production of traditional handicrafts as well as the creation of a learning eco-tourism guesthouse, which would provide for the sustainability of the center.